Preface xiii
Acknowledgements xv
Nomenclature xvii
Chapter 1 The Nature of Chemical Process
Design and Integration 1
1.1 Chemical Products 1
1.2 Formulation of the Design Problem 3
1.3 Chemical Process Design and
Integration 4
1.4 The Hierarchy of Chemical Process
Design and Integration 5
1.5 Continuous and Batch Processes 9
1.6 New Design and Retrofit 10
1.7 Approaches to Chemical Process
Design and Integration 11
1.8 Process Control 13
1.9 The Nature of Chemical Process
Design and Integration – Summary 14
References 14
Chapter 2 Process Economics 17
2.1 The Role of Process Economics 17
2.2 Capital Cost for New Design 17
2.3 Capital Cost for Retrofit 23
2.4 Annualized Capital Cost 24
2.5 Operating Cost 25
2.6 Simple Economic Criteria 28
2.7 Project Cash Flow and Economic
Evaluation 29
2.8 Investment Criteria 30
2.9 Process Economics – Summary 31
2.10 Exercises 32
References 33
Chapter 3 Optimization 35
3.1 Objective Functions 35
3.2 Single-variable Optimization 37
3.3 Multivariable Optimization 38
3.4 Constrained Optimization 42
3.5 Linear Programming 43
3.6 Nonlinear Programming 45
3.7 Profile Optimization 46
3.8 Structural Optimization 48
3.9 Solution of Equations
using Optimization 52
3.10 The Search for Global
Optimality 53
3.11 Summary – Optimization 54
3.12 Exercises 54
References 56
Chapter 4 Thermodynamic Properties and
Phase Equilibrium 57
4.1 Equations of State 57
4.2 Phase Equilibrium for Single
Components 59
4.3 Fugacity and Phase Equilibrium 60
4.4 Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium 60
4.5 Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium Based on
Activity Coefficient Models 62
4.6 Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium Based on
Equations of State 64
4.7 Calculation of Vapor–Liquid
Equilibrium 64
4.8 Liquid–Liquid Equilibrium 70
4.9 Liquid–Liquid Equilibrium Activity
Coefficient Models 71
4.10 Calculation of Liquid–Liquid
Equilibrium 71
4.11 Calculation of Enthalpy 72
4.12 Calculation of Entropy 74
4.13 Phase Equilibrium and Thermodynamic
Properties – Summary 74
4.14 Exercises 74
References 76
Chapter 5 Choice of Reactor I – Reactor
Performance 77
5.1 Reaction Path 77
5.2 Types of Reaction Systems 78
5.3 Reactor Performance 81
5.4 Rate of Reaction 82
5.5 Idealized Reactor Models 83
5.6 Choice of Idealized Reactor Model 90
5.7 Choice of Reactor Performance 94
viii Contents
5.8 Choice of Reactor
Performance – Summary 94
5.9 Exercises 95
References 96
Chapter 6 Choice of Reactor II - Reactor
Conditions 97
6.1 Reaction Equilibrium 97
6.2 Reactor Temperature 100
6.3 Reactor Pressure 107
6.4 Reactor Phase 108
6.5 Reactor Concentration 109
6.6 Biochemical Reactions 114
6.7 Catalysts 114
6.8 Choice of Reactor
Conditions – Summary 117
6.9 Exercises 118
References 120
Chapter 7 Choice of Reactor III – Reactor
Configuration 121
7.1 Temperature Control 121
7.2 Catalyst Degradation 123
7.3 Gas–Liquid and Liquid–Liquid
Reactors 124
7.4 Reactor Configuration 127
7.5 Reactor Configuration for
Heterogeneous Solid-Catalyzed
Reactions 133
7.6 Reactor Configuration from
Optimization of a Superstructure 133
7.7 Choice of Reactor
Configuration – Summary 139
7.8 Exercises 139
References 140
Chapter 8 Choice of Separator for
Heterogeneous Mixtures 143
8.1 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous
Separation 143
8.2 Settling and Sedimentation 143
8.3 Inertial and Centrifugal Separation 147
8.4 Electrostatic Precipitation 149
8.5 Filtration 150
8.6 Scrubbing 151
8.7 Flotation 152
8.8 Drying 153
8.9 Separation of Heterogeneous
Mixtures – Summary 154
8.10 Exercises 154
References 155
Chapter 9 Choice of Separator for
Homogeneous Fluid Mixtures
I – Distillation 157
9.1 Single-Stage Separation 157
9.2 Distillation 157
9.3 Binary Distillation 160
9.4 Total and Minimum Reflux
Conditions for Multicomponent
Mixtures 163
9.5 Finite Reflux Conditions for
Multicomponent Mixtures 170
9.6 Choice of Operating Conditions 175
9.7 Limitations of Distillation 176
9.8 Separation of Homogeneous Fluid
Mixtures by Distillation – Summary 177
9.9 Exercises 178
References 179
Chapter 10 Choice of Separator for
Homogeneous Fluid Mixtures
II – Other Methods 181
10.1 Absorption and Stripping 181
10.2 Liquid–Liquid Extraction 184
10.3 Adsorption 189
10.4 Membranes 193
10.5 Crystallization 203
10.6 Evaporation 206
10.7 Separation of Homogeneous Fluid
Mixtures by Other
Methods – Summary 208
10.8 Exercises 209
References 209
Chapter 11 Distillation Sequencing 211
11.1 Distillation Sequencing Using
Simple Columns 211
11.2 Practical Constraints Restricting
Options 211
11.3 Choice of Sequence for Simple
Nonintegrated Distillation Columns 212
11.4 Distillation Sequencing Using
Columns With More Than Two
Products 217
11.5 Distillation Sequencing Using
Thermal Coupling 220
11.6 Retrofit of Distillation Sequences 224
11.7 Crude Oil Distillation 225
11.8 Distillation Sequencing Using
Optimization of a Superstructure 228
11.9 Distillation Sequencing – Summary 230
11.10 Exercises 231
References 232
Contents ix
Chapter 12 Distillation Sequencing for
Azeotropic Distillation 235
12.1 Azeotropic Systems 235
12.2 Change in Pressure 235
12.3 Representation of Azeotropic
Distillation 236
12.4 Distillation at Total Reflux
Conditions 238
12.5 Distillation at Minimum Reflux
Conditions 242
12.6 Distillation at Finite Reflux
Conditions 243
12.7 Distillation Sequencing Using an
Entrainer 246
12.8 Heterogeneous Azeotropic
Distillation 251
12.9 Entrainer Selection 253
12.10 Trade-offs in Azeotropic Distillation 255
12.11 Multicomponent Systems 255
12.12 Membrane Separation 255
12.13 Distillation Sequencing for
Azeotropic Distillation – Summary 256
12.14 Exercises 257
References 258
Chapter 13 Reaction, Separation and Recycle
Systems for Continuous Processes 259
13.1 The Function of Process Recycles 259
13.2 Recycles with Purges 264
13.3 Pumping and Compression 267
13.4 Simulation of Recycles 276
13.5 The Process Yield 280
13.6 Optimization of Reactor Conversion 281
13.7 Optimization of Processes Involving
a Purge 283
13.8 Hybrid Reaction and Separation 284
13.9 Feed, Product and Intermediate
Storage 286
13.10 Reaction, Separation and Recycle
Systems for Continuous
Processes – Summary 288
13.11 Exercises 289
References 290
Chapter 14 Reaction, Separation and Recycle
Systems for Batch Processes 291
14.1 Batch Processes 291
14.2 Batch Reactors 291
14.3 Batch Separation Processes 297
14.4 Gantt Charts 303
14.5 Production Schedules for Single
Products 304
14.6 Production Schedules for Multiple
Products 305
14.7 Equipment Cleaning and Material
Transfer 306
14.8 Synthesis of Reaction and
Separation Systems for Batch
Processes 307
14.9 Optimization of Batch Processes 311
14.10 Storage in Batch Processes 312
14.11 Reaction and Separation Systems for
Batch Processes – Summary 313
14.12 Exercises 313
References 315
Chapter 15 Heat Exchanger Networks
I – Heat Transfer Equipment 317
15.1 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients 317
15.2 Heat Transfer Coefficients and
Pressure Drops for Shell-and-Tube
Heat Exchangers 319
15.3 Temperature Differences in
Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers 324
15.4 Allocation of Fluids in
Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers 329
15.5 Extended Surface Tubes 332
15.6 Retrofit of Heat Exchangers 333
15.7 Condensers 337
15.8 Reboilers and Vaporizers 342
15.9 Other Types of Heat Exchange
Equipment 346
15.10 Fired Heaters 348
15.11 Heat Transfer
Equipment – Summary 354
15.12 Exercises 354
References 356
Chapter 16 Heat Exchanger Networks
II – Energy Targets 357
16.1 Composite Curves 357
16.2 The Heat Recovery Pinch 361
16.3 Threshold Problems 364
16.4 The Problem Table Algorithm 365
16.5 Nonglobal Minimum Temperature
Differences 370
16.6 Process Constraints 370
16.7 Utility Selection 372
16.8 Furnaces 374
16.9 Cogeneration (Combined Heat and
Power Generation) 376
16.10 Integration Of Heat Pumps 381
16.11 Heat Exchanger Network Energy
Targets – Summary 383
x Contents
16.12 Exercises 383
References 385
Chapter 17 Heat Exchanger Networks
III – Capital and Total Cost
Targets 387
17.1 Number of Heat Exchange Units 387
17.2 Heat Exchange Area Targets 388
17.3 Number-of-shells Target 392
17.4 Capital Cost Targets 393
17.5 Total Cost Targets 395
17.6 Heat Exchanger Network and
Utilities Capital and Total
Costs – Summary 395
17.7 Exercises 396
References 397
Chapter 18 Heat Exchanger Networks
IV – Network Design 399
18.1 The Pinch Design Method 399
18.2 Design for Threshold Problems 404
18.3 Stream Splitting 405
18.4 Design for Multiple Pinches 408
18.5 Remaining Problem Analysis 411
18.6 Network Optimization 413
18.7 The Superstructure Approach to
Heat Exchanger Network Design 416
18.8 Retrofit of Heat Exchanger
Networks 419
18.9 Addition of New Heat Transfer Area
in Retrofit 424
18.10 Heat Exchanger Network
Design – Summary 425
18.11 Exercises 425
References 428
Chapter 19 Heat Exchanger Networks
V – Stream Data 429
19.1 Process Changes for Heat
Integration 429
19.2 The Trade-Offs Between Process
Changes, Utility Selection, Energy
Cost and Capital Cost 429
19.3 Data Extraction 430
19.4 Heat Exchanger Network Stream
Data – Summary 437
19.5 Exercises 437
References 438
Chapter 20 Heat Integration of Reactors 439
20.1 The Heat Integration Characteristics
of Reactors 439
20.2 Appropriate Placement of Reactors 441
20.3 Use of the Grand Composite Curve
for Heat Integration of Reactors 442
20.4 Evolving Reactor Design to Improve
Heat Integration 443
20.5 Heat Integration of
Reactors – Summary 444
Reference 444
Chapter 21 Heat Integration of Distillation
Columns 445
21.1 The Heat Integration Characteristics
of Distillation 445
21.2 The Appropriate Placement of
Distillation 445
21.3 Use of the Grand Composite Curve
for Heat Integration of Distillation 446
21.4 Evolving the Design of Simple
Distillation Columns to Improve
Heat Integration 447
21.5 Heat Pumping in Distillation 449
21.6 Capital Cost Considerations 449
21.7 Heat Integration Characteristics of
Distillation Sequences 450
21.8 Heat-integrated Distillation
Sequences Based on the
Optimization of a Superstructure 454
21.9 Heat Integration of Distillation
Columns – Summary 455
21.10 Exercises 456
References 457
Chapter 22 Heat Integration of Evaporators
and Dryers 459
22.1 The Heat Integration Characteristics
of Evaporators 459
22.2 Appropriate Placement of
Evaporators 459
22.3 Evolving Evaporator Design to
Improve Heat Integration 459
22.4 The Heat Integration Characteristics
of Dryers 459
22.5 Evolving Dryer Design to Improve
Heat Integration 460
22.6 Heat Integration of Evaporators and
Dryers – Summary 461
Contents xi
22.7 Exercises 462
References 463
Chapter 23 Steam Systems and Cogeneration 465
23.1 Boiler Feedwater Treatment 466
23.2 Steam Boilers 468
23.3 Steam Turbines 471
23.4 Gas Turbines 477
23.5 Steam System Configuration 482
23.6 Steam and Power Balances 484
23.7 Site Composite Curves 487
23.8 Cogeneration Targets 490
23.9 Optimization of Steam Levels 493
23.10 Site Power-to-heat Ratio 496
23.11 Optimizing Steam Systems 498
23.12 Steam Costs 502
23.13 Choice of Driver 506
23.14 Steam Systems and
Cogeneration – Summary 507
23.15 Exercises 508
References 510
Chapter 24 Cooling and Refrigeration Systems 513
24.1 Cooling Systems 513
24.2 Recirculating Cooling Water
Systems 513
24.3 Targeting Minimum Cooling Water
Flowrate 516
24.4 Design of Cooling Water Networks 518
24.5 Retrofit of Cooling Water Systems 524
24.6 Refrigeration Cycles 526
24.7 Process Expanders 530
24.8 Choice of Refrigerant for
Compression Refrigeration 532
24.9 Targeting Refrigeration Power for
Compression Refrigeration 535
24.10 Heat Integration of Compression
Refrigeration Processes 539
24.11 Mixed Refrigerants for Compression
Refrigeration 542
24.12 Absorption Refrigeration 544
24.13 Indirect Refrigeration 546
24.14 Cooling Water and Refrigeration
Systems – Summary 546
24.15 Exercises 547
References 549
Chapter 25 Environmental Design for
Atmospheric Emissions 551
25.1 Atmospheric Pollution 551
25.2 Sources of Atmospheric Pollution 552
25.3 Control of Solid Particulate
Emissions to Atmosphere 553
25.4 Control of VOC Emissions to
Atmosphere 554
25.5 Control of Sulfur Emissions 565
25.6 Control of Oxides of Nitrogen
Emissions 569
25.7 Control of Combustion Emissions 573
25.8 Atmospheric Dispersion 574
25.9 Environmental Design for
Atmospheric Emissions – Summary 575
25.10 Exercises 576
References 579
Chapter 26 Water System Design 581
26.1 Aqueous Contamination 583
26.2 Primary Treatment Processes 585
26.3 Biological Treatment Processes 588
26.4 Tertiary Treatment Processes 591
26.5 Water Use 593
26.6 Targeting Maximum Water Reuse
for Single Contaminants 594
26.7 Design for Maximum Water Reuse
for Single Contaminants 596
26.8 Targeting and Design for Maximum
Water Reuse Based on Optimization
of a Superstructure 604
26.9 Process Changes for Reduced Water
Consumption 606
26.10 Targeting Minimum Wastewater
Treatment Flowrate for Single
Contaminants 607
26.11 Design for Minimum Wastewater
Treatment Flowrate for Single
Contaminants 610
26.12 Regeneration of Wastewater 613
26.13 Targeting and Design for Effluent
Treatment and Regeneration Based
on Optimization of a Superstructure 616
26.14 Data Extraction 617
26.15 Water System Design – Summary 620
26.16 Exercises 620
References 623
Chapter 27 Inherent Safety 625
27.1 Fire 625
27.2 Explosion 626
27.3 Toxic Release 627
27.4 Intensification of Hazardous
Materials 628
xii Contents
27.5 Attenuation of Hazardous Materials 630
27.6 Quantitative Measures of Inherent
Safety 631
27.7 Inherent Safety – Summary 632
27.8 Exercises 632
References 633
Chapter 28 Clean Process Technology 635
28.1 Sources of Waste from Chemical
Production 635
28.2 Clean Process Technology for
Chemical Reactors 636
28.3 Clean Process Technology for
Separation and Recycle Systems 637
28.4 Clean Process Technology for
Process Operations 642
28.5 Clean Process Technology for
Utility Systems 643
28.6 Trading off Clean Process
Technology Options 644
28.7 Life Cycle Analysis 645
28.8 Clean Process Technology –
Summary 646
28.9 Exercises 646
References 647
Chapter 29 Overall Strategy for Chemical
Process Design and Integration 649
29.1 Objectives 649
29.2 The Hierarchy 649
29.3 The Final Design 651
Appendix A Annualization of Capital Cost 653
Appendix B Gas Compression 655
B.1 Reciprocating Compressors 655
B.2 Centrifugal Compressors 658
B.3 Staged Compression 659
Appendix C Heat Transfer Coefficients and
Pressure Drop in Shell-and-tube
Heat Exchangers 661
C.1 Pressure Drop and Heat Transfer
Correlations for the Tube-Side 661
C.2 Pressure Drop and Heat Transfer
Correlations for the Shell-Side 662
References 666
Appendix D The Maximum Thermal
Effectiveness for 1–2
Shell-and-tube Heat Exchangers 667
Appendix E Expression for the Minimum
Number of 1–2 Shell-and-tube
Heat Exchangers for a Given Unit 669
Appendix F Algorithm for the Heat Exchanger
Network Area Target 671
Appendix G Algorithm for the Heat Exchanger
Network Number of Shells Target 673
G.1 Minimum Area Target for Networks
of 1–2 Shells 674
References 677
Appendix H Algorithm for Heat Exchanger
Network Capital Cost Targets 677
Index 679
